Geospatial technology is a term which is used to describe the range of modern tools that contribute to the geographic mapping and analysis of the earth and human societies. Since the first maps were drawn in prehistoric times, this technology has been evolving in some form or the other. Nowadays, it has become quite easy to determine the exact location of an object or person with the help of geospatial technology. ‘Geo’ is a Greek word meaning Earth, and ‘spatial’ means relating to space. Thus, geospatial technology is an emerging field of study that includes geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and global positioning system (GPS). Geospatial technology enables us to acquire data that is referenced to the earth. It could be defined as a technology used for collecting, analysing, and storing geographic information. It is used for analysis, modelling, simulations, and visualisation. The GIS can assemble the range of geospatial data into a layered set of maps to allow complex themes to be analysed and communicated to wider audiences.
Evolution of Geospatial Technology
In the 19th century, aerial photography was done by sending cameras aloft on balloons and pigeons and then on airplanes during the 20th century. The important schools of cartography and mapmaking used these aerial photographs to draw maps. The science and art of photographic interpretation and map making was accelerated during the Second World War. During the Cold War, photographic interpretation took new dimensions with the advent of satellites and computers. Satellites allowed images of Earth’s surface and human activities, therein, with certain limitations.
Computers enabled storage and transfer of imagery together with the development of associated digital software, maps, and datasets on socioeconomic and environmental phenomena collectively called GIS. An important aspect of a GIS is its ability to assemble the range of geospatial data into a layered set of maps. This helps in analysing and communicating complex themes to a wider range of users. This ‘layering’ is enabled by the fact that all such data includes information on its precise location on the surface of the earth and therefore is called ‘geospatial’.
Importance of Geospatial Technology
Geospatial technology is of significance in finding answers to many questions arising in multiple industries and sectors. In the beginning geospatial technology had limited application and the data access was also limited. Today, the importance of geospatial technology has gone much beyond drawing maps or military needs. Through geospatial technology, we can track a questioned object and refer it to a specific location, which helps to complete a variety of tasks—scientific or non-scientific, governmental or non-governmental, military or civil.
Geospatial technology uses specially designed software to collect the geographic location, while analysing the impact of human activity and is beneficial for military services, utility companies, urban planners, biodiversity conservation, forest fire suppression, agricultural monitoring, humanitarian relief, etc. In fact, this technology is useful for any field that could benefit from better imagining and analyses of geographic data.
Geospatial technology has also enhanced the performance of artificial intelligence and smart machinery in multiple spheres. Remotely-controlled equipment completes numerous tasks through GPS and digital dashboards.
Types of Geospatial Technologies
The main geospatial technologies are as follows:
Remote Sensing (RS) technology is used for studying objects or surfaces at faraway distances, using the images and data collected from space or airborne camera and sensor platforms.
With the help of the data collected, experts assess the properties of the target and make corresponding conclusions by measuring and analysing the received data. Advanced RS systems distinguish objects of one meter and even smaller. There are various source options and methods of generating images using the satellites revolving around the earth. The images can be collected through filmed or digital aerial images from airplanes and drones; electromagnetic impulses such as visible, infrared and microwave channels; radio-detection and ranging (radar), and light detection and ranging (lidar) to calculate distance using radio or light signals. The technology is highly used in forest monitoring.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a set of software tools, used for mapping and analysing geospatial data, which is assigned a specific location on the surface of the earth. The GIS framework is used for gathering, managing, mapping, and analysing the physical environment data of a specific location on the earth’s surface. Layers of geographical data are used by the GIS to produce spatial analysis and derivative maps, or 3D scenes.
GIS applications store, manage, and analyse large quantities of spatially distributed data, which are associated with their respective geographic features. For instance, data on water quality is associated with the sampling site; crop yields data may be associated with fields or experimental plots, etc. GIS can also manage different types of data which occupy the same geographic space. For instance, a biological control agent and its prey may be spread across various species of plants in an experimental plot. Although the prey plants, and the predator have occupied different plant species in the same geographic region, they could be mapped as distinct and separate features.
GIS can analyse relationships between features and their associated data and can generate new information, as patterns and spatial relationships are revealed.
GIS technology has huge potential in various fields such as conservation, ecology, disaster response and mitigation, business, marketing, engineering, sociology, demography, astronomy, transportation, health, criminal justice, law enforcement, travel and tourism, news media, and much more. GIS is also important in detecting geographic patterns in other data, such as disease clusters which result from toxins, sub-optimal water access, etc.
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on three different segments—satellites, a receiver, and algorithms. These segments work together to synchronise location, velocity, and time data for air, sea, and land travel. Thus, GPS enables the user to determine very accurate locations on the surface of the earth. GPS is a complex and sophisticated technology, its user interfaces have evolved to become very accessible to the non-technical user. Presently, simple and inexpensive GPS units are available, with accuracies of 10 to 20 m.
GPS works on a mathematical technique, called trilateration in which three satellites are required for an accurate calculation of a position. The first satellite provides a general location of a point within a large circular area on the earth’s surface. The second satellite allows the GPS to narrow the specific location of that point and the third satellite provides an accurate position of that point on the earth’s surface. Thus, GPS satellites broadcast their location and time, whereas trilateration measures distances to pinpoint their exact position on the earth.
Further, GPS is based on the geometric phenomenon of triangulation. Calculations ground on three sources, as the name suggests. Surveyors make use of triangulation to measure unknown distances. They do this by establishing a baseline length. From each point, they measure angles of distant points by using instruments such as theodolites. With the help of the lengths and angles, triangulation determines the distances by forming triangles. While surveyors use triangulation to measure distant points, GPS positioning does not involve any angles whatsoever. Through the measurement of distances, the GPS location is determined.
Internet Mapping Technologies include software programmes like Google Earth and web features like Microsoft Virtual Earth, which are changing the way geospatial data is viewed and shared. The developments in user interface are also making such technologies available to a wider audience. Traditional GIS has been reserved for specialists, and those who invest time in learning complex software programmes.
Applications of Geospatial Technologies
The scope of geospatial data use is very vast as it is used in every sphere or industry where geographical position matters. The usage of the RS, GIS, and GPS technologies, either individually or in combination, spans a broad range of degrees of complexity and spheres, such as ecology, tourism, marine sciences, agriculture, forestry, marketing and advertising, military forces, navy, aircraft, law enforcement, logistics and transportation, astronomy, demography, health care, meteorology, and many others.
Following are some of the applications of geospatial technologies.
In climate change and disaster management GIS has been fostering improved environmental understanding, strategic decision making, monitoring of climate change impact, and ascertaining future risks. GIS plays an important role in the preparedness stage of the pre-disaster situation, followed by disaster and post-disaster situations, which attributed to response and recovery and rehabilitation efforts. This capability of GIS was demonstrated in the Nepal earthquake tragedy in 2015.
In earth observation capabilities, The data from RS Earth-observing satellites can be used to monitor a wide range of process, such as vegetation biomass, phenology, water quality, land and sea surface temperature, ocean salinity, and many more.
In health care, modern GIS technology helps health organisations analyse significant trends. Health and human services organisations use software to map cases of a disease, identify high-risk areas or common origination points. GIS has been supporting at the frontline against the COVID-19 battle. Since the onset of the pandemic, GIS-based maps, apps, and dashboards have been displaying real-time data about hospital capacity, ICU beds, ventilators, and date; zone; hospital; age; and gender-wise details daily. The officials have directly been receiving access to real-time data from health and police departments for situational analysis, actionable insights, and to further imparting information to citizens.
In education, geospatial capabilities are being built to augment teaching and research in geospatial technologies. For example, All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) has approved the inclusion of ‘Geospatial Science and Technology’ as a subject in the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) and the National Eligibility Test (NET).
In governance, geospatial technologies have a major role to play. Geospatial data is required for all the development works in all sectors, and it plays a critical role in governance and is well aligned with the Atmanirbhar Bharat (self-reliant India). With self-sufficient space technology, India is the first country to use space programmes for domestic programmes. The government has been focussing on producing indigenous and cost-effective technologies.
In social sector, geospatial technologies have been adopted in utmost capacity by social sector since 2020 to address complex societal problems, such as education, livelihood, financial inclusion, environment, ecology, natural resource management, etc. GIS technologies have played a positive role in India’s efforts towards meeting UN sustainable development goals (SDGs).
In land and forest resource management, GIS technologies have been used to create survey infrastructure of Indian villages, developing maps, and generating accurate land records for rural planning. For instance, A GIS-enabled programme, Verbal Visual Framework (VVF) was developed to access the suitability of landscape as a species habitat.
To map the forest cover and carbon stock assessment, forest departments use GIS and RS technologies. Pictures of the Earth’s surface are used to create 3D visualisation of forest, access distribution of forest ecosystems, and measure the overall changes in farm yields across different seasons. GIS and RS help in forest conservation studies and to measure the extent of forest degradation.
GIS is also used for assessing possibilities and impact of forest fires, as it provides accurate information on the structure of the forest. Thus, GIS technologies provide accurate representation of multi-layered sites using hydrology and elevation.
In supply chain management, GIS is being used to track shipments and inventory, which make the supply chain more efficient and cost-effective. Geospatial technologies help in identifying location and time of arrival, route making, and navigation of the consignments.
If the route takes a longer time and the freshness of the goods are compromised, then professionals could identify the problem areas and improve the odds on the future deliveries to arrive in better conditions.
In urban planning, authorities rely heavily on GIS technology to responsibly accommodate a community’s citizens, while minimising harm to existing structures. GIS technologies could help in identifying best places to build windmills or solar panels or install renewable energy infrastructure on a smaller scale.
In banking sector, GIS helps in identification of performing and non-performing branches while consolidating. GIS software helps in making it easier for banks to identify locations with lower utilisation rates, high loan default rates, etc. GIS also helps in mapping out demographics to see which areas are in need of specific products. For example, someplace with high rates of car ownership may have a greater need for auto insurance.
In insurance sector, location is a strong indicator of risk. GIS software allows insurance professionals to map risk levels based on information, such as historic records of hurricanes or floods, demographics to asses risks like accidents and local geography to show the possibility of events like landslide, etc.
In meteorology, GIS technology gathers, analyses, and stores geographic information such as elevation, city locations, population, weather-related information, etc. It is also used to track wind movement, cloud patterns, rainfall and more based on which, meteorologists make more accurate weather forecasting.
In agriculture and ground water resources, simple applications determine the location of sampling sites, plotting maps for use in the field, or examining the distribution of soil types in relation to yields and productivity. More complex applications include vegetation classification for predicting crop yield or environmental impacts, modelling of surface water drainage patterns, or tracking animal migration patterns.
The analytical power of a GIS is applied to site-specific data to identify patterns in the field, such as areas of greater or lesser yield; correlations between yield and topography, or characteristics such as nutrient concentrations or drainage, etc.
Thus, farmers precisely determine what inputs to put exactly, where and also in what quantities.
Skymet, one of India’s largest private sector weather stations, uses weather forecasting geospatial tools and provides a wide range of services like crop estimation, agribusiness solutions, crop-loss estimation studies, crop cutting, and crop insurance.
In ecology, these technologies have enabled the researchers to assess and monitor wildlife and biodiversity of many remote and inaccessible terrains, which could otherwise not be explored through traditional methods. RS and GIS help in mapping the distribution and dispersal and comparing the density and distribution of a species over a period of time.
Then, based on species richness, diversity indices, threats and other ecological information, ‘conservation priority areas’ are plotted on the satellite image using GIS software.
In advertising, GIS is used for targeted marketing to map and locate concentrations of population that are more likely to buy given products. Targeted marketing uses web-based GIS platforms, and has seen biggest boom in recent times.
Web-based GIS is called geographic information technology (GIT), where web technology, consumer knowledge, and geography are integrated to best customise given advertisements.
In real estate, GIS helps professionals and their clients understand the market and factors that affect it in a better way. By incorporating findings from multiple databases like census data and financial history, real estate professionals precisely assess the value of a plot and make predictions about future developments.
Geospatial Technology in India
The multidimensional usage of geospatial technology in India is mentioned below.
In internal security, a single platform called ‘Crime Investigation System’ is being developed for quick and effective crime investigation. This app would include several modules, including call detail records analysis, visitor location register analysis, geo-tagged mapping of temporary hiding places of criminals, etc.
In infrastructure, geo-informatics, information and communications technology (ICT), and space technology have been used to create the Web-GIS-based Odisha Land Bank for industrial and infrastructure development.
In social research, village profiling has been achieved spatially through transect walks, and aerial mapping, using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), through a pilot study undertaken at Bhora Khurd village in Haryana. The profiling would explore the potential of geospatial data and use geospatial technology in social research. It would gauge, map, and produce on visual platforms inaccessible geographies to understand resource-oriented gaps and eventually would lead to better governance.
The Genesys International has developed an innovative solutions based on light detection and ranging (LIDAR) technology, for the safety and security planning in Smart Cities, with CCTV-based surveillance system. The system also provides with 3D models of the real-world objects.
eLoC is a standardised and precise pan-India digital address system. Just as Aadhaar is used for the identification of individuals, eLoC system would be used for the identification of addresses. It is a 6-character-based code, which is a unique identifier, and would precisely locate any address.
In preserving natural resources, a non-governmental organisation, Keystone, has been using GIS-based data and mapping to gather and analyse a library of information to preserve water resources and biodiversity. It uses mapping technologies to support initiatives aimed at preserving springs and wetlands. Besides, the organisation, has been promoting sustainable livelihoods, help indigenous people gain title to traditional lands, and improve access to water for over 4,000 families.
In railways, Indian government has employed AIRPIX (drone) to avail UAV solutions for their 25 km long Seawoods-Belapur-Urban project and for project management and monitoring. It would not only provide data but also data analytics to derive insights about the project status.
LIDAR scanning for railway infrastructure A research project was initiated at IIT-Roorkee for providing Ministry of Railways with insights on India’s current railway infrastructure through LIDAR scanning. The project would recommend improvements on the tracks, signalling, stations, and terminals.
In the roads and highways sector, Road Asset Management System (RAMS) project has been taken up by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) with the assistance from the World Bank. The project would provide location-based data for more than 200 attributes of the road.
In Karnataka, differential GPS and UAVs were employed to improve the road network, particularly in less urbanised areas for ensuring the maximum utilisation of natural resources.
In Tamil Nadu, a web-based GIS e-Pathai, has been envisioned to assist the states highway department to rationalise decision making in planning, programming, funding, procurement, and in allocation of resources in road sector, in order to make the best use of public funds in preserving the road networks.
In transportation sector, transportation application, Ola, was developed through the use of geospatial technologies as a way to aggregate the highly scattered personal transportation offering into a single system that was efficient, reliable, scalable, and affordable.
Smart Bus is an app, based on mobile and location-based technologies to monitor and track the school buses from anywhere anytime. Information alerts about arrival and departure of school bus, and the exact geo-location and estimated time of arrival (ETA) were shared with the parents.
Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOC) uses this technology while transporting large quantities of petroleum products between its supply depots and retail outlets. Early assessment of the implemented solution also indicates cost and time savings, better management, and increased convenience to the company.
In utility services, mapping technologies are being used to improve sanitation for India’s urban poor who lack access to a basic sanitary resource—a toilet. One Home One Toilet was implemented by Shelter Associates to solve this problem with the help of data and GIS to map infrastructure of the slums, identifying the homes that do not have individual toilets or access to communal or community toilets.
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) has been using Mumbai Base Map, digitised by National Informatics Centre (NIC) and ArcGIS systems to manage their utilities through Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) which updates the maps from time to time.
Challenges in India
One of the most prominent hurdles is the absence of a sizeable geospatial market in India on a scale linked to India’s potential and size. The main reason is the lack of awareness among potential users in public and private sectors. Other hurdles include the lack of skilled manpower across the entire pyramid, the unavailability of foundation data, especially at high-resolution, the lack of clarity on data sharing and collaboration, and no ready-to-use solutions especially built to solve the problems of India except a few cases.
Though advanced geospatial technologies are uniquely positioned to play a pivotal role in India’s growth story, the real benefits of productivity, efficiency, transparency, and monitoring to reach citizens and customers, geospatial infrastructure holds the key. Therefore, each component of the geospatial infrastructure, such as institutional, knowledge, technology, etc., must be strengthened urgently in a harmonised manner.
Future of Geospatial Technology
Despite all the odds, India’s geospatial infrastructure is now widely acknowledged and accepted. Geospatial infrastructure played a key role in sectoral development and economic growth. With enhanced awareness and affordable access, governments and enterprises have been relying on location-based information to support strategic priorities, decision making, and monitoring outcomes.
Mainstreaming GIS into all the phases of disaster management planning would give an opportunity to better prepare and expedite, and magnify the impact of planning and relief efforts through greater efficiency.
Remote sensing would also be helpful in forestry, agricultural, and disaster management applications in the future.
As a result, the Indian government has announced liberalised guidelines drafted by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) for geospatial data which will bring sweeping changes to India’s mapping policy, specifically for Indian companies. The government is also formulating a new space-based remote sensing policy to enable enhanced participation of the Indian industry and ease of data access with simplified procedures.
According to former Secretary, Department of Space and Chairman, Space Commission, Dr K. Sivan, liberalisation of geospatial data policy would benefit every sector and the country as a whole. Undoubtedly, geospatial technologies are well aligned with ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ and will expectedly play a crucial role in the country’s march towards five-trillion economy.
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