India has a very ancient agricultural history, which goes back approximately to thousands of years. Being an agricultural country, the livelihood of a majority of Indian population is agriculture. The primary source of income for about 60 per cent of India’s population is agriculture. Agricultural production has grown over the years after independence, which not only made India self-sufficient, but also an exporter of agricultural and allied products. There was an estimated total food grain production of 291.95 million tonnes in 2019-20. As per the estimates of the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), demand for food grain would increase to 345 million tonnes by the year 2030.
According to the ICAR, India has a large arable land which is fit for cultivation with 15 agroclimatic zones. These 15 agricultural zones are divided based on agroclimatic features, particularly soil type, climate, temperature, and rainfall, and their variation and water resources availability. India has all types of weather conditions and soil types. Hence, India is capable of growing a large variety of crops. India is the largest producer of milk, spices, pulses, tea, cashew, jute, rice, wheat, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, sugarcane, and cotton.
Types of Farming in India
According to geographic locations, different types of farming methods are practised in India, such as subsistence farming, organic farming, and commercial farming based on horticulture, ley farming, agroforestry, and so on. Productivity is dependent on the geographical location of the region. Nature of land, climatic characteristics, and available irrigational facilities determine the type of farming practised in India.
The following are the types of farming methods practised in India.
Shifting agriculture In this type of farming, a piece of forest land is cleared by felling trees, and their trunks and branches are burned. After the land is cleared, crops are grown for some years, and then the land is abandoned as the soil loses its fertility. The farmers then move to a new area and the process is repeated. About 1.73 million hectares of land is under shifting cultivation in India. Dry paddy, maize, millets, and vegetables are the commonly grown crops in this type of farming. This is largely practised in the North-East despite various efforts to discourage indigenous communities from practising it.
Subsistence agriculture Subsistence agriculture means agriculture for one’s own consumption, i.e., the farmer and his family produce cereals for themselves and for the local market, if they have any surplus. It is characterised by small and scattered land holdings, and use of primitive tools. As these farmers are from the economically weaker sections, most of them cannot afford fertilisers, high quality seeds, and high-end farming equipment.
Intensive farming Intensive farming aims at maximum possible production on the limited farms, with all efforts possible under the circumstances. This is the most typical method of soil cultivation and is the main source of food the world over as it is capable of raising more than one crop in a year. Therefore, farmers invest a huge amount of money and human labour on the land. Intensive farming is intended to produce sufficient food at affordable prices.
Extensive farming Extensive farming is the modern system of farming, which is done on large farms with the help of machines. That’s why, extensive farming is also known as mechanical farming. Here, the farmer raises only one crop in a year. Employment of labour and capital per hectare of land is comparatively less. This type of agriculture primarily depends on the natural fertility of the soil, the terrain, the climate, and the availability of water.
Plantation agriculture In this type of agriculture a single crop like rubber, tea, coconut, coffee, cocoa, spices, fruit crops, etc., are sown for the entire year and the yield is generally obtained continuously for a number of years. It consists of bush or tree farming on huge areas. This farming is capital-centred. This agriculture demands good managerial ability, technical knowledge, improved machineries, fertilisers, irrigation, and transport facilities. It is an export-oriented agriculture. It is practised in Kerala, Karnataka, Assam, and Maharashtra.
Commercial agriculture Commercial farming is practised to raise crops on a large scale, to export the produce to other countries. This type of farming is done in sparsely populated areas. It is practised in Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra. Wheat, cotton, sugarcane, corn, etc., are some of the commercial crops.
Dryland farming Dryland farming is used to grow crops without irrigation in areas which receive low annual rainfall of about 750 mm–55 mm or even less, and have inadequate irrigation facility such as western, North-western and central India. In this farming, moisture is maintained by raising special type of crops. Gram, jowar, bajra, and peas are some of the dryland crops.
Wetland farming Wetland farming depends mainly upon rains. Hence, it is practised in areas that have high rainfall and have good irrigation facilities such as the North, North-East and the slopes of the Western Ghats. Rice, jute, and sugarcane are grown in wetland farming.
Types of Crops
On the basis of seasons, the following crops are grown in India:
- Kharif crops are grown with the start of monsoon till the beginning of winter, which is from June–July to October–November. Rice, maize, millets, cotton, groundnut, moong, urad, etc., are some of the kharif crops.
- Rabi crops are sown with the start of the winter till the beginning of summer, that is, from October–November to March–April. Wheat, barley, peas, gram, and oilseeds are some of the rabi crops.
- Zaid crops are grown in short season of summer between Kharif and Rabi seasons. Watermelon, cucumber, pumpking, bitter gourd (Karela), etc., are some of the zaid crops.
Terrace farming Terrace farming refers to growing crops on sides of hills. For this purpose, the hill and mountain slopes are cut to form terraces and the land is used for farming. Terrace farming is done due to scarcity of the availability of flat land. Soil erosion is also checked due to terrace formation on hill slopes. Terrace farming is practised in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and some parts of the North-East.
Organic Farming in India
Organic farming has been in practice in India since thousands of years. The great Indian civilisation thrived on organic farming and it was one of the most prosperous countries in the world, till the British started ruling India. Before shifting to chemical farming, organic farming was practised in India using organic techniques, where the fertilisers, pesticides, etc., were obtained from plant and animal products, such as cow dung, compost, etc. The cow provided milk as well as bullocks for farming.
During 1950s and 1960s, there were several natural calamities in India. During this period, there was also a sudden spurt in the population, which led to a severe food scarcity in the country. The government had to import foodgrains to feed the growing population. It was feared that millions of poor Indians would die of hunger in the mid-1970s. The need was felt to drastically increase the production of foodgrains in the country.
Therefore, under the leadership of M.S. Swaminathan, the government had to adopt the Green Revolution, to produce more foodgrains. Large amount of land was brought under cultivation, hybrid seeds, chemical fertilisers, and chemical pesticides were introduced.
As a result of the Green Revolution, the imports of food supply slowly decreased with every passing year. By 1990, India, became self-relient, and also started exporting surplus food grains to other countries.
With the passage of time, side-effects of chemical fertiliser and pesticides have started showing their impact. The land is losing its fertility and demanding more fertilisers for the produce. Pests started becoming immune to the pesticides, forcing farmers to use stronger pesticides. Thus, chemical fertilisers and strong pesticides not only harmed humans but also increased cost of farming forcing farmers to take loans. Whereas, organic system of agriculture repairs, maintains, and improves the ecological balance.
Organic farming is based on the following principles:
(i) Principles of Health: To maintain health of people and ecosystem;
(ii) Principles of Ecology: To strike a right balance between ecosystem and environment;
(iii) Principles of Fairness: To maintain good human relationship and quality of life; and
(iv) Principles of Care: Consideration about the present and future environment.
Techniques of organic farming Following are some techniques of practising organic farming in India:
Soil management After cultivation, the soil loses its nutrients and its fertiliser goes down. Hence, to revitalise soil with all its necessary nutrients soil management technique of organic farming is used. In organic farming, natural ways to increase the fertility of the soil are used through bacteria available in animal waste. Bacteria help in making the soil more fertile and productive.
Weed management Weeds are unwanted plants that grow with the crop and absorb the nutrients from the soil and affect the growth of the crop. So, weeds are to be removed from time to time either by cutting or moving them manually or by mulching, in which farmers use plastic film or plant residue on the soil’s surface to check growth of weeds.
Crop Diversity In this technique, different crops are cultivated together in order to fulfil the growing demand for crops.
Chemical management To protect the crops from harmful organisms that affect the growth of the crop, a balanced mixture of pesticides and herbicides is used. Since agricultural farms contain useful and harmful organisms, proper maintenance is required to protect the crops from pests.
Biological pest control In this method, farmers use living organisms instead of pesticides to control pests that affect the crop.
Status of organic farming in India At present, India ranks first in the number of farmers practising organic farming, and ninth in terms of area under organic farming. Sikkim became the first state in the world to become fully organic in 2016. The North-East region of the country has traditionally followed organic means and the consumption of chemicals is far less than the rest of the country. Likewise, tribal and island territories of India already practise organic farming. Among the states, Madhya Pradesh has covered largest area under organic certification followed by Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Karnataka.
Approximately, 2.78 million hectares of land has been covered by organic agriculture. Some of the major organic products grown in India are oilseeds, tea, coffee, dried fruits, millets, cereals, spices, etc. India is one of the major suppliers of organic food to the developed nations.
In 2020–21, India produced about 35 lakh metric tonnes of certified organic products including all varieties of food products, such as oil seeds, sugarcane, cereals and millets, cotton, pulses, aromatic and medicinal plants, tea, coffee, fruits, spices, dry fruits, vegetables, processed foods, etc.
The total volume of export during 2020–21 was about 8.88 lakh metric tonnes. India earned around US$ 1 billion through export of organic food.
Due the to adverse consequences of chemical farming, organic farming is gaining momentum not only in India, but all over the world. Gradually, consumers and farmers are now, shifting back to organic farming in India. Thus, rolling back to traditional agricultural practices is an approach for environmental sustainability and food security. Further, the developed nations like the US, Europe, etc., have made stringent standards for non-organic food which has affected the export of agricultural produce from India.
Following is a brief introduction of several government schemes for promotion of organic farming:
Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North East Region (MOVCD-NER) and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) were launched in 2015 to assist farmers to adopt organic farming, and improve remunerations due to premium prices. Under MOVCD-NER scheme, Rs 25,000 per hectare, for three years of organic inputs are provided, whereas under the PKVY scheme, an assistance of Rs 50,000 per hectare, for three years, are provided, out of which, 62 per cent (Rs 31,000) is given through direct benefit transfer (DBT) as an incentive for using organic inputs.
Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) is under the soil health management scheme, in which 100 per cent assistance is provided to state government and government agencies for setting up of mechanised fruit and vegetable market waste, agro-waste compost production unit, up to a maximum limit of Rs 190 lakh per unit. Besides, assistance up to 33 per cent of cost limit to Rs 63 lakh per unit is given as capital investment for individuals and private agencies.
National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP), intended to boost the production of oilseeds, provides 50 per cent subsidy to the tune of Rs 300 per hectare for different components like bio-fertilisers, supply of Rhizobium culture, phosphate solubilising bacteria (PSB), vermi compost, etc.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) provides 50 per cent of the cost limit to Rs 300 per hectare for the promotion of bio-fertiliser (Rhizobium/PSB).
Certification of organic produce is an important element of organic produce to administer customer confidence. Both the PKVY and MOVCD-NER promote certification under the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) and National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), respectively. Based on the standards of the PGS and NPOP, the logos of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) Jaivik Bharat / PGS Organic India, have to be printed. PGS Green is given to chemical-free produce under transition to ‘organic’, which takes around three years.
Sustainable Approach to Farming
According to study, titled Integrated farming with intercropping increases food production while reducing environmental footprint, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), USA. The study conducted that small farmers can grow more food and have reduced environmental footprint. The following four methods suggested in the study are worth applying in India.
Relay planting, involves planting of different crops such as rice
(or wheat), cauliflower, onion, and summer gourd (or potato onion, lady’s fingers, and maize), in the same plot, one after another, in the same season. Thus, the farmer does not have to depend on one crop alone and there is better distribution of labour and insects spread is also less. However, mechanisation of relay planting could be difficult and the management requirements are also higher in this method.
Strip rotation is within-field rotation, or allowing strips for planting other plants, such as grass fruits besides the major crops. The land is divided into strips, and strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. Practised in the USA, strip farming requires large fields.
Soil mulching is done by covering all bare soil with straws and leaves, even when the land is in use.
No-till farming increases the annual crop yield and curtails soil erosion but retains moisture of the soil. In this method, soil is not disturbed, or there is little tillage.
Modern Farming Practices in India
Vertical farming is a process of growing plants on vertical lined surfaces which does not require much space, and could be done in buildings, homes, etc. It uses indoor farming techniques using Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) technology. It can be compared with greenhouses to a great extent. In India, vertical farming is mainly polyhouse-based farming (a protected way of farming that provides higher productivity and yield of vegetables and fruits in India).
Farmers are not completely aware of the process of vertical farming. So, most investors are reluctant to try it at a commercial scale. However, there are a few successful greenhouse farmers, who are trying the substrate-based hydroponics to grow tomato, capsicum, and cucumber. Lack of experience, knowledge, and skills is the major hurdle in the success of soil-based greenhouse farming and soil-less farming.
But the situation is undergoing rapid change. Under the initiative of the Government of India, universities have started skill-based degree programmes for urban and rural youths. Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, offers a degree course in Green House Management.
Since vertical farming is without soil, it includes soil-less techniques, such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics.
Hydroponics In hydroponics, the roots of the plants are either submerged in water or in sterile and inert material. The nutrient salts are provided by dissolving them in the water. This technology ensures consistent taste, shape, and colour of the produce and consumes 90 per cent less water. The yield is high, predictable, and free from soil-borne diseases.
Aeroponics In aeroponics, plant roots are suspended in the air, and moisture and nutrients are provided through foggers. This provides most oxygen to the roots, making the plants grow faster and produce more.
Aquaponics In aquaponics nutrient salts are replaced with water from aquaculture, a method of growing a lot of fish in a small area. Ammonia from fish excreta is converted by bacteria strains into nitrites and nitrates which are toxic to fish in varying degrees. Plat roots take up nitrates as it is a major nutrient. Thus, the water is cleared for aquaculture.
The result is a perfect collaboration between aquaculture and gardening.
Mostly, the crops grown in vertical farming include vertical ginger cultivation, crab farming, lettuce, etc.
Challenges Faced by Indian Agriculture
Despite doing well during the last two decades, Indian agriculture is currently marred by the problems related to sustainability, nutrition, adoption of new agricultural technologies, and low income levels of the population dependent on farming. The major challenges are as follows:
Climate challenge Rising temperature and increased occurrences of extreme weather conditions have made climate change a big threat to Indian agricultural productivity loss resulting in hampering biological growth of the plants as well as crop damage by increasing pest and disease attack.
Agricultural Waste management Agricultural waste or crop residue burnings in the northern states leads to increase in the air pollution levels.
Fragmented landholdings The average size of holding has come down significantly over the years. According to the 2010–11 Agriculture Census, the total number of operational holdings was 138.35 million, with an average size of 1.15 hectares. Of the total holdings, 85 per cent are in marginal and small–farm categories of less than 2 hectares.
Disguised unemployment Even as the agriculture sector engages 49 per cent of the total labour force in the country, its contribution to total Gross Value Added (GVA) is only 17 per cent. This shows that there is overdependence of labour force on agriculture resulting in considerable hidden or disguised unemployment in the sector and lower labour productivity.
Food inflation and volatility in food prices Due to heavy dependence of agriculture on rainfall, adverse climatic conditions like draught, flood, and unseasonal rains have a disruptive impact on both aggregate supply and supply chains, rendering high level of volatility to food inflation trajectory. Inadequacies is the food supply chain impact food inflation in the country.
Conclusion and Course of Action
The value of agriculture in India as the main source of livelihood for a majority of the population cannot be undermined. In the coming time, will be increase in demand for quantity, quality, and nutritious food, which will increase pressure on land. As such, much has to be done in terms of increasing productivity, usage of cost-effective technologies, environmental protection, and conservation of natural resources. The government and other organisations should accelerate their efforts to address all the key challenges of agriculture in India. There is a need of second green revolution focused on the agriculture–water–energy nexus, making agriculture more climate resistant and environmentally sustainable. The application of biotechnology and breeding will be crucial in developing eco-friendly, disease-resistant, climate-resilient, more nutritious, and diversified crop varieties. The use of digital technology and extension services would facilitate information sharing and creating awareness among the farmers. The volatility in food prices and farmers’ income can be contained by adopting better post-harvest loss-management and upgrading co-operative movement through formation of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs).
Many start-ups in agriculture which are run by highly educated young people have also understood the high potential of putting money and efforts in this sector. Cumulative effects of technology over the next decade would change the face of agriculture and Indian farming practices.
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